A large cemetery from the late Ubaid period at Eridu was excavated and revealed painted pottery vessels and pottery figures. It is presumed there was a belief in the afterlife and the vessels would contain food and drink. They found handmade cups, vessels with flared rims, triform bowls and dishes with dark geometric decoration on a pale ground.

Eridu, early Uruk, trilobite painted bowl
4,000-3,500 BC - source National Museum of
Iraq Baghdad

Surprisingly, there was not much differential between the graves of the elite or others. They also found very-high-fired, fine pottery tools such as sickles, adzes and axe heads having a hole for a shaft, which could have been used for harvesting reeds and grain, splitting pithy woods or dressing sun-dried bricks. This indicates not only the shortage of stone, but also the high quality of the pottery needed for such applications.

There were a number of important inventions during the Ubaid period, particularly in the 4^th millennium BC. Very significant was the faster, pivoted potter’s wheel, which although still not as fast as the later kick wheel made a considerable difference to quality and productivity. It probably predated the use of the wheel for transport that also was developed in this area before 3,500 BC, probably independently and about the same time as in Central Europe and the Caucasus Region. A pictograph of around 3,000 BC has been found that depicts a four-wheeled wagon, probably drawn by oxen or asses. A buff-bodied pottery jar dated to 2,800 to 2,600 BC is decorated in red, black and white with a chariot pulled by donkeys. The wheels were probably planks of wood secured with crosspieces. A depiction of a more advanced 4-wheeled war chariot was discovered on the Royal Standard at Ur, dated around 2,500 BC. Also invented were cylinder seals (as the name implies, cylinder seals were carved with negative inscriptions that appeared in relief when rolled over a clay surface) and the plough (both about 4,500 BC), sophisticated copper casting by the lost-wax process, and possibly the first glass around 3,500 BC. Pottery glaze was also discovered in the 3^rd millennium, although was not used extensively until much later. Glass, as beads, and glaze were possibly discovered accidentally in a potter’s kiln or during the smelting of copper. If the former, it could have been caused by an accidental mixing of calciferous sand with soda in an overheated kiln. The technology of both was later spread along the Mediterranean Coast by Phoenician traders. During the Ubaid period they also discovered alcohol, producing beer from barley around 4,000 BC. Bakers became the brewers, as beer was a by-product of fermenting mashed barley in bread making. Small clay counters found in pots in Tell Abbada also suggest they carried out some form of primitive accounting.

9.11 Uruk

By 4,000 BC there was a flourishing urban culture in Mesopotamia, with the larger cities such as Uruk, Kish, Nippur, Bad-Tibira and Ur extending their control over large areas becoming “City-States” further developing their social organization with a shared common culture. Ceramic production took place in large centres in the cities. These city-states developed into kingdoms and began a succession of dynastic royal families. The ruler also had a religious role as the main link to the gods, so he led ceremonies to please them. There became a clear hierarchy, with the rulers, top bureaucrats and high priests at the top, merchants, artisans and scribes as middle class, but the majority were peasant farmers. Around this time the city-state of Uruk took over as Capital (or more accurately “First City State”) from Eridu, and the Sumerian Culture gradually took over from Ubaidian. From the “Kings List” found on pottery vases and fragments, there appears to have been only one king at a time in Sumer. As a particular city became more powerful it’s leader became king, so the Capital switched back and forth between major cities. During the Uruk period, the original Eridu site became solely for the temple, and the city itself moved to an adjacent site. Eridu continued as a substantial city through the Ur Early Dynastic period (3,000-2,500 BC).