The power of the Greek rulers ultimately started to wane, particularly under continued “political” and more direct pressure from the Romans. Much of the ancient Alexandrian library was burnt down by accident when Julius Caesar burnt the Egyptian fleet in the war against them around 48 BC. It is thought that Anthony removed many books from other libraries including a vast number, possibly 200,000 from the famous one at Pergamum and gave them to Cleopatra to restock the Alexandrian library. With the death of “Cleopatra”, the last ruling Ptolemy, in 30 BC, Egypt became a province of the Roman Empire, starting Egypt’s Roman Period. Egypt went on to become the Roman Empire’s “bread basket” essentially being bled dry of grain, and it also supplied huge quantities of gold and granite.

The Egyptian Culture seduced the Romans at first, so there was little forced change. However, this did not last long and the Romans soon started to impose their rule. One major impact was the introduction by the Romans of the “idiologos” or magistrates who were given control of all religious cults, setting the scene for later religious persecution.

Considerable amounts of “Roman” pottery were imported as well as being produced locally using kaolin rich clay. This included oil lamps, some with green crackled glaze, on red and buff pottery.

Roman Period, plaque of Harpocrates in
Roman uniform, rim sherds from glazed
bowls UC8792, 45596/5 - Copyright of the
Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology, UCL

During the Roman period tin-based glazing also reappeared. There were numerous designs on pottery at this time, including animals, flowers and topical scenes.

With the birth of Christ in around 4 BC, Christianity spread throughout the Roman Empire and was brought to Egypt by St Mark during Nero’s reign in the early 1^st century AD. The religion based on his teachings was called Coptic after the old name for Memphis – Hikaptah. St Mark died in Alexandria in 68 AD. Alexandria was one of the greatest Christian teaching centres in the early centuries. Its importance is shown by the adoption of the Nicene Creed because of the support of St Athanasius, who was Patriarch or Pope of Alexandria from 327 to 373 AD.  The Coptic religion spread from Alexandria and became imposed on the Egyptian people. Designs on pottery lamps now were crosses, the names of saints and other Christian devices. The monks in the early monasteries also spoke the Coptic language. Egyptians wishing to retain their own religion and customs were subject to persecution and death, so they were driven further and further south until they disappeared altogether. Unfortunately, Coptic Christians defaced any ancient images and copious quantities of books they considered pagan, but many books from the Alexandrian library are thought to have been saved by being sent to Constantinople. The Coptic language was used until the 12^th and 13^th centuries AD when Arabic took over. During the Christian Period Egyptian potters continued to use kaolin clays, but only to produce earthenware pottery.

There is no doubt a great deal more to be discovered about the detailed history of Egypt and its pottery under the Egyptian sands.

9.35 “Old” Babylonia (2,040-1,595 BC) and “Middle” Babylonia (Kassite) (1,595-1,153 BC)

The settlement of Babylon existed before 5,000 BC in the northern part of the early Sumerian Culture, subsequently growing into a substantial city-state. It only became really involved in the history of the region after the fall of Ur III (1,950 BC), although the whole period from about 2,040 to 1,595 BC is referred to as “Old Babylonia”. Around 1,900 BC, a Semitic speaking people, the “Amorites”, possibly originally from the Arabian Desert but since about 3,000 BC living in Syria and Canaan, entered South Mesopotamia and captured the city-state of Babylon, retaining it for some three centuries. Their First Dynasty was set up by the new ruler Samuabum (1,894-1,881 BC).