Since the Parthians were not very good at holding captured land, there were continual skirmishes resulting in a standoff between them and the Romans for several hundred years. The Parthian Empire was very loosely controlled and relied on the local Greek intelligentsia to run it, permitting various languages and coinage to be used. This was its downfall however as its last king, Artabanus V, was unable to hold it together to withstand the challenge of Ardashir I, a descendant of Sason, who started the Persian Sassanian Dynasty (225-651 AD).

One of the strongest Shahs of this Dynasty was Shapur I (241-272 AD) who reformed the country economically and militarily. His Empire covered Iran, Iraq, Armenia, Afghanistan, East Turkey and parts of Syria, Pakistan, Caucasia, Central Asia and Arabia. Continued battles took place with the Byzantines (The Eastern Roman Empire from around 330 AD) and the Afghanistan Huns. The Sassanian Empire waned at times, but resurged in the 7^th century when it expanded westwards into the Levant, taking Jerusalem in 611 AD if only for a short period. The Sassanian era had considerable influence on the art in the rest of the world, particularly the Romans, but also onwards to Western Europe, Africa, China and India. This influence carried on to the later Islamic world.

Sassanian pottery continued some of the Parthian traditions, but grey ware disappeared and, as Zeroastrian burial customs were reintroduced, pottery coffins also disappeared. Incised and stamped decoration became more intricate with wavy lines, rosettes, geometric patterns and inscriptions.

Sassanian pot with squirrel decoration 5/7
centuries AD - source Aspire Auctions

The stamps were carved from wood and included geometric shapes and beautiful animals such as deer. Some bowls and covers were used for ritual purposes - magic bowls to fend off demons - and were inscribed circumferentially on the inside with spells. The discovery of square kilns 4m wide showed that pottery manufacture became industrialised at several centres. Glaze technology improved with turquoise being the most popular colour.

Sassanian buff bodied bowl with
turquoise glaze - Courtesy
Milwaukee Public Museum

Figurines were also popular, some of them part-glazed.

The Sassanians challenged Roman power in the Middle East for over 400 years. However, even though they had managed to resist the Romans for so long, their army lost to an Arab army in 636 AD, paving the way for the Islamic conquest of Persia. The Arab army looked ramshackle, but was not burdened with families etc. and had a very well structured hierarchy and leadership. They were also well armed. It came as quite a surprise to more established armies such as the Persians when they lost battles to the Arabs. The conquering Arabs introduced Islam to the Middle East and ruled Persia for some 150 years.

9.47 Islamic Empire (from 661AD)

Arabia had been involved with the countries of Western Asia since the middle of the 3^rd Millennium BC when trade took place between Eastern Arabia, particularly Bahrain, Mesopotamia and India. Caravan trade between South Arabia and the Fertile Crescent began in the middle of the 2^nd Millennium BC, and their domestication of the camel around 1,200 BC made desert travel easier. Both the nomadic and settled Arabs were always trying to expand their territories long before Mohammed and Islam. However, the previously flourishing states in Arabia were caught up in invasions from Ethiopia and the Sassanians in the 5^th and 6^th centuries AD, causing their decline. This disruption made it easier for the Muslims to take over so rapidly. Muhammad (570-632 AD) is regarded by Muslims as the last prophet of Islam after others including Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses and Jesus. In 622 AD he and his followers moved to Medina where he united the conflicting tribes and returned to conquer Mecca in 630 AD. By the time of his death he had united most of the Arabian peninsular. The Qur’an is a compilation of his beliefs and sayings that is followed by Muslims in the same way as the Bible is by Christians. After his death there were the usual squabbles over succession, but the first Caliph, Abu Bakr, took control and started to expand the Empire outside Arabia. He only ruled for two years and was succeeded by Caliph Umar (634-644 AD).