9.52 The Seljuk Empire (1037-1194 AD)

The Seljuks were Turkic people who migrated into Persia in the 10^th century from Turkestan. They were recent converts to Islam, and developed a large Islamic Empire lasting from 1037 to 1194 AD. At its greatest extent it covered Iran, Anatolia (by defeating the Byzantine Romans in 1071 AD), the Fertile Crescent and east as far as the Punjab. There were several Capitals, Rayy until about 1080 AD, then Isfahan and in 1150 AD Konya in Anatolia. Many major cities on the trade routes flourished during this period.  They adopted the Persian language and culture, restoring much of it, and supported the arts and philosophy. For example, they established an observatory where Omar Khayyam worked on his new calendar. They also built Madrasahs, the religious schools, in all major towns. 

The Seljuk leaders, coveting Sung whiteware, encouraged the potters of Rayy, Kashan and Jorjan to find a substitute for porcelain. Although neither stoneware nor porcelain was ever made in the ancient Middle East, the Seljuk potters made a significant breakthrough with a new body that was a development of the composite white frit material rather than earthenware, and these cities became the centres of its production. The origin of the new fritware body is uncertain, one theory having it transferred from Egypt via Syria during the decline or at the fall of the Fatimids (together with the return of the lustre technology), and another that it was an earlier “independent” development in Persia itself, because of the early examples having indigenous designs. By the 12^thcentury they made fine white bodies so thin they could be close to translucent, nearly matching the fineness of Chinese imports. The first vessel using this body is dated to 1140 AD. The clear alkali glaze was easier to apply on this body, and sometimes it was greenish, making the bowls, jugs or occasionally cups even more attractive. Some vessels were undecorated, relying on their fine shape, body and glaze. Others were moulded or incised with designs from simple to elaborate floral, sometimes with Kufic inscriptions. The potters also used a novel technique piercing the body with small holes that were then filled with the glaze, making the pot even more translucent. Another technique on white wares was to apply cobalt blue splashes.

Glazed pot with black decoration
12-14 centuries AD - courtesy
Milwaukee Public museum

The white fritware could also be used as a white slip to improve a coarser frit or red clay body. Towards the end of the 12^th century at Soltanabad, Iran, the potters mixed their glaze material with the white-firing clay, which when fired at high temperatures produced a body close to soft-paste porcelain, with some pots slightly translucent. This technology probably inspired the attempts to make porcelain in Florence.

Another style using fritware was monochrome glazed, which was common all over Iran. Body shapes were bowls, jugs, tankards, pitchers, and zoomorphic vessels, most likely made in moulds. They were coloured blue, green, turquoise, brown, yellow or purple. A minority of these had added decoration including incisions, mouldings, inscriptions and dancing figures. This ware was also made at Nishapur, the fourth prolific ceramic centre. The potters also made figural spouts on some vessels as well as stand-alone figures.