It can be argued that one of the very first glimmers of civilisation appeared with the late Natufians (10,500 to 9,600 BC) in the Levant. In a few areas of relatively intensive farming (agriculture and animal husbandry) and pottery use (cooking and food storage technology), such as the dispersed villages of these Neolithic peoples, the Culture developed to embrace more complex societies. Some of these areas became the first recognisable civilisations, and their development marks the start of a new phase of world history. They arose, apparently independently, in four widely dispersed areas: the lower Tigris and Euphrates valleys, the Nile valley, the Indus valley (around Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro) and the Yellow river around An-yang.

The characteristic feature of them all was the city, which now became an increasingly dominant social form, gradually encroaching on the surrounding countryside. The city possessed many important characteristics. A hierarchy of social (political and religious) classes developed. There would be a complex division of labour. Literacy developed and with it a literate class (usually the priesthood). There was often an autocratic ruler linked to a religion. Below him there would be an “aristocracy” of priests and nobles who would control most of the land. Usually there would be monumental public buildings. Ultimately an Empire might develop, together with the claim to universal rule. There were also downsides to cities and urban living. Disease was more rampant and as an example Catal Huyuk, one of the earliest cities in Anatolia, was plagued by malaria.

No doubt future discoveries will bring some surprises, however, it is already clear from the link between food development and pottery, and its importance in subsequent social development, that the invention of pottery is a milestone of great significance in the progress of human society.

There follows brief descriptions of three regions of the world where early agriculture, pottery and social activity created interesting advances, but for various reasons did not have a “worldwide” impact.

6.2 Africa

Probably the earliest pottery items from Africa are terracotta figurines found in Algeria dated to 20,000 BC.

Map of Africa - source freeworldmaps

From about 10,000 BC the present Sahara Desert was much wetter than now, as the monsoon from the south reached Central Sahara. Grassland developed that supported elephant, giraffe, rhinoceros, hippopotamus and lion. There were large lakes and river systems and their imprints remain under the sand and are apparent today on satellite photographs. One of the oldest settled human populations lived here as fishermen besides these ancient rivers and tributaries and the lakes that provided year round fish supplies, uniquely recognisable by using a distinctive barbed bone harpoon. They also fully exploited wild cereals – mainly indigenous millet. It is thought that black-skinned people migrated towards this favourable area from further south in tropical Africa sometime before 8,000 BC as the climate improved. Between 10,000 and 8,000 BC, in areas within a belt from present Sudan to Algeria, the first inhabitants produced fantastic rock art (carvings and paintings in ochre and red) of boats, men hunting wild animals, including a depiction of a crocodile.