Alexander died in Babylon, having just returned from India, in June 323 BC just before his 33rd birthday. The period between the death of Alexander and the annexation of the Greek Heartlands by Rome in 146 BC is known as the “Hellenistic” period, during which time the Macedonian monarchy ruled mainland Greece. Alexander died without designating a successor, although he had a half brother, who became Philip III, and a son born after his death who became Alexander IV. They were both successively used as figureheads by his Generals, but Phillip III was killed in 317 BC and Alexander IV at the age of only twelve. This situation provoked these ambitious Generals to compete amongst themselves, leading to a civil war that lasted for almost 50 years, causing the disintegration of Alexander’s Empire. Antipater was probably the most “senior” general and ruled Macedonia and Greece. Ptolomy secured the governorship of Egypt, Lysander of Thrace and Seleucus of Babylon. Antipater died in 319 BC, setting off more battles. It was Cassander who murdered Alexander IV in 310, and died himself in 297 BC. After many power struggles, Alexander’s Empire was divided between the descendants of the remaining Generals, resulting in the setting up of a number of new kingdoms. By about 285 BC the Ptolemys ruled Egypt, Palestine, North Africa and South Anatolia; Seleucos ruled a huge area from Lebanon and Eastern Anatolia to Afghanistan; Antigonus ruled most of Greece; Lysimachus North East Greece, Macedonia and North and Western Anatolia; and Pyrrhus a relatively small region of North West Greece. However, the situation was very fluid, and various alliances between kings changed boundaries dramatically. Lysimachus was killed in 281 BC fighting the Seleucids and his Kingdom collapsed. Pyrrhus was a brilliant general who based himself on Alexander. He invaded Italy and battled with the Romans and won, but at huge cost to his army, hence the term “Pyrrhic Victory”. He then took on the Carthaginians without lasting result and even the Spartans. It was in 272 BC in Argos, Mainland Greece, during street fighting that an old woman dropped a tile on his head and while dizzy an enemy soldier beheaded him. Confusion was also caused by the various major cities continually expressing their independence including Athens, Rhodes, Sparta and Pergamum. Eventually the number of major powers was reduced to three, the Ptolemys, Antigonids and Seleucids, all of which became lasting Kingdoms with a Dynastic leadership.

The basic political units of these Kingdoms were the city-states, many nominally independent but owing allegiance to the relevant king. Initially the main centres of Hellenistic Greek culture became Antioch in Ancient Syria and Alexandria, the Capital of Ptolemaic Egypt, together with Pergamum, Athens, Ephesus and Rhodes. Mainland Greece was no longer the centre of Hellenistic power and development. From the 3rd century BC the economy of Mainland Greece declined and there was little demand for their painted pottery, although figures from Tanagra were popular. The main trade throughout the Mediterranean now was silver from Spain, copper from Cyprus and Iran, tin from Cornwall and food from Egypt. Rice was also introduced from India.

Seleucos (358-281 BC) began as Alexander’s Satrap in 323 BC in Babylon. He had to flee from Antigonus but returned in 312 BC as king, helped by Ptolemy. He made Antioch his Western capital in 300 BC and built his new Eastern Capital Seleucia 40 miles away from Babylon, sited on an old Babylonian settlement on the Tigris at the junction of a canal from the Euphrates. He moved there around 307 BC. This was the death knell for Babylon, and by 141 BC it was desolate. Seleucus started a Dynasty that reigned for some two centuries.